An Introduction to Existentialism + Summary of ‘Being and Nothingness’ by Jean-Paul Sartre
Context
Existentialism took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an era characterized by sweeping transformations in society, governance, and thought. The trauma of the World Wars and the existential disillusionment of the interwar years further shaped the movement as humanity grappled with unprecedented destruction and moral ambiguity. The Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanization destabilized traditional social structures, fostering feelings of alienation. Philosophically, the decline of religious authority in the wake of Enlightenment rationalism left many questioning life’s meaning in an increasingly secular world. A new school of philisophical thinkers laid the groundwork, challenging institutionalized religion and advocating for individual freedom and responsibility. Academically, advancements in psychology and critiques of modernity influenced these thinkers, who emphasized subjectivity, freedom, and the anxiety of choice. Existentialism arose as a response to these crises, offering a framework to confront the absurdity of existence and reclaim personal meaning.
Defined
Existentialism is a philosophical approach rooted in individual autonomy, subjective experience, and the confrontation of an unpredictable, often indifferent reality. At its foundation lies the principle that existence precedes essence, asserting that individuals are not born with inherent purpose but must shape their own identity through deliberate choices and actions. This notion subverts traditional metaphysical assumptions, prioritizing human agency over divine predetermination or societal constructs.
Central to existentialism are the themes of freedom, responsibility, and authenticity. Freedom, while liberating, carries the burden of total accountability for one’s decisions, often provoking existential angst—a deep unease tied to the absence of inherent meaning. Authenticity, a cornerstone of the theory, calls for living in alignment with one’s true values, resisting conformity to external pressures.
Existentialism confronts the absurd—the conflict between the humanistic quest for meaning and the universe’s indifference. It offers a framework for navigating this paradox, suggesting that purpose can emerge from embracing life’s experiences despite their lack of ultimate meaning. The theory explores despair, freedom, and self-actualization, encouraging individuals to meet existence’s trials with integrity and resolve. By providing tools to confront uncertainty, existentialism fosters both self-awareness and the capacity to construct meaning in a disordered world.
As one Jean-Paul Sartre's titles aptly states, “Existentialism is a Humanism”. Ultimately, existentialism places humanity at its center.
Key Works & Contributors
Being and Nothingness: A Summary
Sartre introduces his project of exploring the nature of being, informed by phenomenology. He distinguishes between two fundamental types of existence: being-in-itself, which refers to inert, unconscious objects defined by fixed essences, and being-for-itself, which characterizes human consciousness as dynamic and self-aware. Central to being-for-itself is existential freedom—the capacity to define oneself through choices. Sartre aims to illuminate how humans confront their freedom in a universe devoid of inherent meaning. He argues that consciousness introduces nothingness into existence, allowing humans to negate and question reality. This capacity underpins freedom but also creates existential dilemmas. For example, humans are aware of what they are not, enabling them to envision alternative possibilities. In his exploration of bad faith, Sartre posits that individuals deny their freedom by clinging to external roles or excuses, such as the waiter overly embodying his role or the lover feigning innocence of their intentions. This exploration reveals the tension between freedom and the desire for stability.
Sartre delves into being-for-itself, characterized by self-awareness, temporality, and transcendence. Consciousness is inherently temporal, linking past, present, and future. Humans are always projecting themselves toward future possibilities, which creates a perpetual state of incompleteness. Through transcendence, individuals can surpass current realities and define themselves, but this process often induces existential angst—the recognition of freedom’s weight and uncertainty.
Interpersonal relationships reveal the complexity of being-for-the-other. Sartre introduces the look, where the awareness of being perceived by another person objectifies the self, reducing one’s freedom. For instance, shame arises when an individual feels exposed under another’s gaze, revealing the tension between asserting personal autonomy and recognizing the freedom of others. The body plays a dual role as both a vehicle of self-expression and a site of vulnerability, mediating relationships with others.
Sartre explores freedom as the essence of human existence, expressed through action (to do) and possession (to have). Actions and possessions are extensions of self-definition, but Sartre warns against equating identity with what one owns or achieves. Instead, true freedom lies in authentic engagement with life, where individuals take responsibility for their choices and define their own values. He concludes by synthesizing his ontological framework, contrasting the static nature of being-in-itself with the dynamic, self-creating nature of being-for-itself. He suggests that authenticity—living in full acknowledgment of one’s freedom and responsibility—is the pathway to a meaningful existence. While Sartre refrains from prescribing a formal moral system, he implies that existentialism demands individuals confront the ambiguity of freedom and act in ways that affirm their own values and humanity.
reference:
Sartre, J.-P. (2018). Being and nothingness: An essay in phenomenological ontology (Sarah Richmond, Trans.). Washington Square Press. (Original work published 1943)
Contemporary Application
The COVID-19 pandemic served as a global confrontation with the absurd—the stark realization of life’s fragility amidst an indifferent world. Existentialist thought, which thrives in moments of upheaval, provides a lens through which we can understand the profound shifts in values during and after the pandemic. The sudden rupture of routine forced individuals and societies to grapple with existential angst, questioning the structures they had long accepted, such as relentless productivity and the prioritization of profit over well-being. For many, the experience exposed capitalism's dehumanizing tendencies, as essential workers were overburdened while corporate profits soared, and the pursuit of wealth often outweighed public health.
In true existentialist fashion, the pandemic ignited a search for authenticity. The reevaluation of work-life balance became a defining shift, as individuals sought to align their lives with personal values rather than societal expectations. This period of reflection mirrors the existentialist call to embrace freedom and responsibility, requiring individuals to actively choose how they live and work, rather than passively accepting imposed norms.
Collectively, the pandemic spurred a reassessment of what constitutes meaningful action, fostering solidarity and community care in response to shared trauma and vulnerability. As we move forward, existentialism invites us to redefine purpose both individually and collectively, rejecting complacency in favor of deliberate, value-driven change. By embracing existentialist principles of freedom, authenticity, and self-actualization, we can transform crisis into an opportunity for renewal, shaping a world more attuned to humanity's shared needs and aspirations.
