From Blackface to DEI: Hollywood’s Historical and Ongoing Struggles with Racism
This paper was written for the Race & Ethnicity in the United States course at Johns Hopkins, as part of my Master of Liberal Arts program.
Abstract
This paper examines Hollywood's persistent struggle with racism, highlighting the disjunction between its liberal image and ongoing racial issues. It traces the industry's history from early practices rooted in racist aesthetics and stereotypes, such as blackface and minstrel shows seen in films like "The Birth of a Nation" (1915), to the portrayal of Native Americans and Asians through "redface" and "yellowface," which reinforced harmful caricatures. The impact of the Hays Code (1930-1968) on racial representation is analyzed, showing how its policies marginalized minority characters. The emergence of Blaxploitation films in the 1970s is explored for both its challenge to and reinforcement of racial stereotypes, alongside key figures who advanced anti-racism efforts in Hollywood. Contemporary issues, including the #OscarsSoWhite movement and subsequent reforms, are critically evaluated, with a focus on current diversity and inclusion initiatives and the role of streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime in promoting diverse content. The paper further investigates color-blind racism, which obscures systemic racial inequities, and colorism, favoring lighter-skinned individuals within minority groups. Intersectionality is discussed to highlight how overlapping identities, particularly race and gender, create distinct experiences of discrimination. By integrating concepts of racial bias, white aesthetics, and systemic barriers, this study offers a comprehensive analysis of Hollywood's complex and ongoing quest for racial justice.
Racism in America is a deeply ingrained social construct that affects all areas of society, including education, socioeconomic status, and media representation. Defined as a system of racial advantage, racism is evident both in individual prejudices and institutional policies that disproportionately impact people of color (Desmond & Mustafa, 2016). The origins of racism in the United States can be linked to the institution of slavery, which not only dehumanized African Americans but also established a racial hierarchy that continues to influence social structures today. This hierarchy was further solidified through discriminatory immigration policies and the creation of the U.S. Census, which marginalized non-white immigrants and reinforced notions of white superiority (Desmond & Mustafa, 2016). Consequently, racism is embedded in American society, affecting educational disparities, where students of color often receive fewer resources and opportunities, and socioeconomic status, where systemic barriers hinder upward mobility for marginalized groups (Canada, 2013; Smith & Rosalsky, 2020; Summer, 2016). In film and television, white-dominated and racist aesthetics have historically controlled narratives, perpetuating stereotypes and underrepresenting people of color, which further normalizes and legitimizes racism within broader American culture.
Upon immigrating, Jewish individuals faced significant pressure to assimilate into American society while dealing with pervasive antisemitism (Brodkin, 1994). Despite being subjected to widespread prejudice and considered inferior, Jewish immigrants played a pivotal role in shaping Hollywood. Prominent figures such as Adolph Zukor, Harry Cohn, and the Warner brothers were instrumental in founding major film studios, including Paramount Pictures, Columbia Pictures, and Warner Bros. These pioneers, often barred from other industries due to antisemitic attitudes, turned to the burgeoning film industry, which presented fewer barriers to entry (Venuti, 2023). The film industry provided these Jewish entrepreneurs with a unique opportunity to influence and shape a powerful cultural platform. Their efforts were crucial in establishing Hollywood as a global entertainment hub, even as they faced ongoing challenges and stereotypes regarding Jewish control of the industry (Gabler, 1989). However, Jewish filmmakers frequently encountered negative portrayals in the very films they helped create. Influenced by the societal norms and prejudices of their time, these creators sometimes inadvertently perpetuated racism and stereotypes through their work (Venuti, 2023). Despite their efforts to address these issues, the prevailing attitudes of the era often influenced them to reinforce harmful stereotypes in their films (Gabler, 1989).
The early 20th century saw Hollywood's emergence marked by significant racial inequality, exemplified by films such as D.W Griffith‘s The Birth of a Nation (1915), which depicted African Americans derogatorily, using white actors in blackface to portray them as villains while glorifying the Ku Klux Klan as heroes. This film set a troubling precedent for racial representation in Hollywood, where Black characters were frequently relegated to stereotypical roles or portrayed by white actors in blackface, a practice rooted in the minstrel shows of the 19th century (CBS, 2018; Yuen, 2019). Subsequent films, such as Gone with the Wind (1939), continued this trend by depicting African Americans in subservient roles. Hattie McDaniel won an Oscar for her portrayal of Mammy, a stereotypical character, highlighting the limited and often demeaning roles available to Black actors (Bogel et al.). These early portrayals significantly shaped the industry's casting and storytelling practices for decades.
Similarly, early Hollywood films perpetuated stereotypes about Indigenous Americans and Asians through practices like "redface" and "yellowface." Redface involved white actors portraying Native American characters through simplistic and derogatory stereotypes, such as the "noble savage" or "violent warrior," which failed to capture the diversity and complexity of Indigenous cultures (CNN, 2019; Diamond, 2009). Yellowface involved white actors utilizing makeup and exaggerated accents to mimic East Asian features and mannerisms. This practice was prevalent in films like The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932) and Charlie Chan in Egypt (1935), where Asian characters were often depicted as either sinister villains or submissive servants (Adachi, 2006; Harris, 2013; Marchetti, 1994). These portrayals reinforced harmful stereotypes and denied authentic representation to Asian and Indigenous actors, contributing to a legacy of racial misrepresentation in Hollywood that endured for many years.
In the 1930s, implementing the Hays Code, a regulatory framework designed to govern the moral content of films, profoundly impacted racial representation in Hollywood. A key aspect of the Hays Code was its explicit prohibition of "miscegenation," which it defined as relationships between white and Black individuals. This effectively banned the portrayal of interracial relationships on screen (Lev, 2003). This restriction not only reinforced racial segregation but also limited the roles available to non-white actors, often confining them to stereotypical or minor parts. Consequently, films featuring interracial relationships, such as Josephine Baker's Princess Tam Tam (1935), were frequently denied wide release (Hollywood Reporter, 2016). This censorship marginalized racial minorities and perpetuated a limited and biased depiction of American life.
While the concepts of being 'not racist' and 'anti-racist' are relatively recent, with anti-racism defined as actively opposing and dismantling racism in all its forms (Kendi, 2020), some prominent figures have long demonstrated firm and proactive stances against racial injustice. Throughout the decades, certain celebrities emerged as anti-racist advocates, using their platforms to challenge societal norms and promote equality. For example, in the 1950s, Betty White took a stand against racial prejudice by featuring Arthur Duncan, a Black tap dancer, on her television show despite receiving threats from Southern stations threatening to boycott the program. White's decision to keep Duncan on the show, even at the risk of cancellation, underscored her commitment to racial equality and played a significant role in launching Duncan’s career (Workers World, 2022; Business Insider, 2022). Similarly, during the civil rights era, Fred Rogers addressed racial issues on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood by casting Francois Clemmons, an African American actor, as a police officer. This choice, made in the late 1960s, was a deliberate challenge to racial segregation and a promotion of inclusivity and acceptance (Biography, 2023). Both White and Rogers used their platforms in the entertainment industry to challenge racial stereotypes and champion social justice, creating a profound and enduring influence on American culture and media.
In the 1970s, blaxploitation films emerged as a pivotal yet controversial chapter in cinematic history. Driven by a desire within the Black community for authentic representation, these films included notable titles like Coffy (1973) and Shaft (1971). While blaxploitation films achieved commercial success and enhanced Black visibility on screen, they also reinforced negative stereotypes, often depicting Black men as "pimps, drug dealers, and hustlers," and hyper-sexualizing Black women (Carter, 2021; Harvard Magazine, 2003). Despite these problematic portrayals, the genre offered a crucial platform for Black actors and filmmakers, propelling stars like Pam Grier and Richard Roundtree to prominence. Blaxploitation's impact extended beyond cinema, influencing Black popular culture, music, and fashion. However, the genre's legacy of stereotypes continues to shape perceptions of Black identity today (Golden Globes, 2022).
From the 1970s through the early 2000s, television shows often fell into racial categories, with distinct "white shows" and "Black shows," such as All in the Family (1971) and The Jeffersons (1975), respectively. Although Black sitcoms like The Cosby Show (1985) achieved mainstream success, the industry remained largely divided along racial lines. Tokenism became prevalent in predominantly white shows, where a single Black character was often added to create an appearance of diversity without providing genuine representation. This tokenism was evident in numerous popular shows of the time (Gibson, 2022), where Black characters were typically assigned secondary roles with minimal development or impact on the storyline. Despite these constraints, the inclusion of Black characters in mainstream television represented a step toward more inclusive representation, setting the stage for greater integration in the industry.
The late 20th century saw a transformative shift in television programming with the emergence of networks like UPN and BET, which were specifically aimed at African American audiences. UPN, launched in 1995, and BET, established in 1980, provided platforms for Black voices and stories that had been largely underrepresented in mainstream media. These networks were instrumental in showcasing Black talent and culture, producing popular shows that resonated deeply with African American viewers. UPN, for instance, featured series such as Moesha (1996) and The Parkers (1999), while BET gained recognition for its music programming and original content that highlighted Black experiences. The success of these networks underscored the demand for diverse storytelling, playing a key role in enhancing the visibility and acceptance of Black culture in mainstream media.
In contrast, Latin and Hispanic representation in media has frequently been limited, but also entrenched by stereotypes that fail to reflect the diversity and complexity of these communities. Sun and Parker (2012), in Latinos Beyond Reel: Challenging a Media Stereotype, argue that media portrayals often rely on reductive and harmful tropes, such as the "criminal," "illegal immigrant," or "exotic" figure. These stereotypes misrepresent the rich cultural heritage and varied experiences of Latinx individuals and reinforce negative perceptions that shape public attitudes and policy (Sun & Parker, 2012). For example, the portrayal of Latinx characters as gang members or overly sexualized figures is prevalent in films and television, overshadowing more nuanced and positive depictions. This narrow portrayal can perpetuate racial and ethnic biases, contributing to the marginalization of Latinx communities within the entertainment industry and beyond (Sun & Parker, 2012).
Racial bias and discrimination in casting have long plagued Hollywood, where people of color have often been marginalized or cast in stereotypical roles. Research shows that minority actors are frequently passed over for leading roles, especially in mainstream or blockbuster films (Smith et al., 2019). When cast, actors of color are often confined to supporting roles that perpetuate negative stereotypes, such as the "criminal" or "sidekick" archetypes. Additionally, casting practices frequently exhibit a preference for lighter-skinned actors, even within minority groups, perpetuating colorism within the industry (Monk, 2020). These discriminatory practices not only restrict opportunities for minority actors but also contribute to a lack of diverse representation on screen, shaping how audiences perceive race and ethnicity in society. The persistence of these biases highlights the urgent need for more inclusive and equitable casting practices in Hollywood.
Colorism, the preferential treatment of lighter skin tones over darker ones within the same racial or ethnic group, remains a significant issue in Hollywood. This bias affects casting decisions, often resulting in lighter-skinned actors of color being cast in leading roles, while darker-skinned actors are relegated to stereotypical or supporting roles that reinforce negative perceptions (NBC News, 2019; Hunter, 2007). Studies indicate that Hollywood's preference for lighter skin perpetuates colorist ideologies, which not only limit opportunities for darker-skinned actors but also reinforce broader societal inequalities by promoting a narrow standard of beauty and success (Hannon, 2015). Furthermore, the industry's common use of terms like "flesh-toned" to describe lighter skin in makeup and costume design underscores the normalization of colorism, marginalizing those who do not fit this standard (Wade & Sharp, 2010). Addressing these issues necessitates more inclusive casting practices that genuinely reflect the full spectrum of racial and ethnic diversity.
Hollywood’s history of racial representations has been plagued by stereotypes, initially focusing on Black, Asian, Hispanic, and Indigenous characters. By the late 20th century, however, Middle Easterners, particularly Arabs, became a new target for marginalization. This transformation can be attributed to geopolitical developments like the Iranian Revolution and the ensuing hostage crisis, which intensified American fears and shaped Hollywood's depiction of Arabs as antagonists or terrorists (Shaheen, 2003). Films like True Lies (1994) and The Siege (1998) reinforced these negative stereotypes, depicting Arabs as violent and threatening, thereby perpetuating societal prejudices and limiting opportunities for Middle Eastern actors (Shaheen, 2003). Such portrayals not only skew public perception but also entrench the marginalization of Middle Eastern individuals in the industry. This trend reflects a broader pattern in Hollywood, where racial and ethnic groups are often reduced to simplistic and harmful stereotypes, impacting both on-screen representation and real-world attitudes (Shaheen, 2003).
Historians and filmmakers have increasingly spotlighted Hollywood’s racist practices through various books and documentaries, exposing the industry’s persistent issues with racial representation. One significant work is Reel Inequality: Hollywood Actors and Racism (Yuen, 2016), which delves into the systemic barriers faced by actors of color and critiques the industry’s reliance on racial stereotypes. Additionally, the book and subsequent documentary Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People, explores the negative depiction of Arabs in Hollywood films and its effects on public perception (Shaheen, 2006). These works have been instrumental in highlighting how Hollywood has historically marginalized racial minorities, shaping industry practices and societal attitudes. By documenting and analyzing these patterns, historians and filmmakers have fostered a deeper understanding of Hollywood’s impact on race relations and underscored the need for more equitable representation in media (Yuen, 2016; Shaheen, 2006).
The rise of social media has significantly impacted the visibility of societal issues, including racial disparities in Hollywood. Platforms such as Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook have empowered marginalized voices, allowing them to share their experiences with a global audience. A notable example is the #OscarsSoWhite movement, which emerged in 2015 to protest the lack of diversity among Academy Award nominees. This viral hashtag highlighted the systemic underrepresentation of people of color in Hollywood's most prestigious accolades (Harris, 2016).
The #OscarsSoWhite movement ignited widespread conversation and prompted industry leaders to recognize and address diversity issues within the Academy. It also demonstrated social media's potential as a powerful tool for advocacy, proving that collective online voices can effect change in industries resistant to reform. In response, there have been efforts to diversify the Academy’s membership and increase the representation of minority groups in film, both in front of and behind the camera (Smith et al., 2018).
Minority showrunners and directors have been instrumental in transforming Hollywood, creating content that showcases diverse experiences and perspectives. Pioneers like Ava DuVernay, known for directing Selma (2014) and creating Queen Sugar (2016), and Ryan Coogler, who directed Black Panther (2018), have not only achieved critical acclaim but have also challenged industry norms by focusing on stories centered around people of color (Smith et al., 2019). Their successes have paved the way for future minority creators, fostering a more inclusive Hollywood where diverse voices are increasingly prominent.
Research shows that audiences are responding positively to this increased diversity in film and television. Shows like Never Have I Ever (2020), created by Mindy Kaling, and Reservation Dogs (2021), co-created by Sterlin Harjo and Taika Waititi, demonstrate a strong demand for narratives that reflect a broad spectrum of cultural experiences (Hunt et al., 2022). Additionally, films like Black Panther (2018) have proven that culturally resonant stories with diverse casts not only attract large audiences but also achieve substantial box office success (Hunt et al., 2022). These examples underscore the growing recognition that diversity enriches storytelling and aligns with the preferences of contemporary audiences, who seek content that mirrors the diverse world around them concerning race, ethnicity, and gender.
The concept of intersectionality elucidates the complex interactions between race and gender, emphasizing how these identities converge to produce unique forms of bias and exclusion (Crenshaw, 1989). In Hollywood and other industries, while minorities generally face fewer opportunities and less representation compared to their white counterparts, minority men often receive more opportunities than minority women. This disparity is attributed to the compounded discrimination faced by women of color, who encounter both racism and sexism, a phenomenon known as "double jeopardy" (Berdahl & Moore, 2006). For instance, Black women may experience biases that are not faced by Black men or white women, making their challenges unique and often more severe (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008). Understanding intersectionality highlights that barriers to success and representation are not uniform across all minority groups and underscores the need for more nuanced approaches to addressing inequality (Bowleg, 2012) within the film and television industry.
Streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, Amazon Prime, and Apple TV+ are at the forefront of promoting Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) by offering a diverse range of stories that highlight various racial and cultural experiences. Netflix has made significant strides with series like Squid Game (2021), a South Korean production that captivated global audiences and brought Korean culture and societal issues into the spotlight (CNET, 2021). Another notable example is Never Have I Ever (2020), which delves into the life of an Indian-American teenager, providing a nuanced exploration of South Asian culture and identity. Similarly, One Day at a Time (2017) portrays the challenges faced by a Cuban-American family with depth and sensitivity.
Hulu's Reservation Dogs (2021) stands out for its authentic representation of Indigenous youth, created by Native filmmakers and featuring a predominantly Indigenous cast. On Amazon Prime Video, Them (2021) examines the experiences of a Black family in a predominantly white neighborhood, tackling themes of racial tension and discrimination. Lastly, Apple TV+'s Pachinko (2022) presents an epic narrative following a Korean family across generations, shedding light on the struggles of Korean immigrants in Japan.
These streaming platforms are not only enhancing the visibility of diverse cultures and experiences but also challenging traditional Hollywood conventions, paving the way for more inclusive and representative storytelling in the media landscape.
While progress has been made, a significant factor contributing to ongoing issues in Hollywood may be color-blind racism, an ideology that dismisses race as a factor in social inequality and allows systemic racism to persist under the pretense of neutrality. Color-blind racism, which claims to treat everyone equally regardless of race, often leads to the marginalization and erasure of minority groups, particularly Indigenous peoples (Robertson, 2015). In Hollywood, this form of racism is evident in the underrepresentation and misrepresentation of people of color in film and television, where their stories are frequently overlooked or reduced to stereotypes. By professing a "color-blind" stance, industry leaders frequently avoid confronting the racial disparities present in casting, production, and storytelling, thereby maintaining a status quo that prioritizes whiteness (Bonilla-Silva, 2018). The lack of Indigenous representation exemplifies this issue, as Indigenous peoples remain largely invisible in mainstream media, further legitimizing their marginalization (Robertson, 2015). This ongoing erasure reinforces dominant cultural narratives that overlook the importance of race, perpetuating racial inequalities within the entertainment industry.
The racial inequities faced by Hollywood are not unique but reflect broader systemic issues present across various sectors in the United States. Racism is deeply ingrained in American society, creating widespread and insidious barriers that impact all industries, including the entertainment sector, which is often viewed as progressive and socially aware. Despite Hollywood's reputation for advocating social change, implicit biases and systemic inequalities persist, mirroring the challenges seen in other fields. Even today, "movies remain very white, very straight, very cis, and very male" (Dockterman, 2023).
To effectively address these entrenched problems, Hollywood must undertake substantial reforms. This includes implementing fairer casting and hiring practices and committing to authentic storytelling that genuinely represents diverse experiences. By confronting these issues directly and fostering true inclusivity, Hollywood can set a positive example and contribute to a more equitable society, challenging the pervasive racism that affects every facet of American life.
